Brief Early History of Brass
Copper Applications in Metallurgy of Copper &
Copper Alloys
By Vin Callcut
After the Copper
*(Chalcolithic) Age came the Bronze Age, followed later by the Iron
Age.
There was no 'Brass Age'
because, for many years, it was not easy to make brass. Before the
18th century, zinc metal could not be made since it melts at 420ºC and
boils at about 950ºC, . . .
. . . Only in the last millennium has brass
been appreciated as an engineering alloy. Initially, bronze was
easier to make using native copper and tin and was ideal for the
manufacture of utensils. Pre-dynastic Egyptians knew copper very well and
in hieroglyphs copper was represented by the ankh symbol 'C' also used to
denote eternal life, an early appreciation of the lifetime cost-effectiveness
of copper and its alloys. While tin was readily available for the manufacture
of bronze, brass was little used except where its golden color was required.
The Greeks knew brass as 'oreichalcos', a brilliant and white copper.
*The Chalcolithic (English:
/ˌkælkəˈlɪθɪk/), a name derived from the Greek: χαλκός khalkós,
"copper" and from λίθος líthos, "stone" or Copper
Age, also known as the Eneolithic or Aeneolithic (from Latin
aeneus "of copper") is an archaeological period which researchers now
regard as part of the broader Neolithic.
Chalcolithic Europe · Rudnik ·
List of archaeological periods
*Chalcolithic - Wikipedia
*****
The
Pharaoh
eagle-owl
is native to much of northern Africa and the Arabian
peninsula. In Africa its range extends from Mauritania, Morocco, Algeria and
Tunisia in the west, through Mali, Niger and Chad to Libya, Sudan and Egypt. It
is also known from Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Oman, Israel,
Jordan and Iraq. It is a vagrant to Senegal.[1] Its habitat is mostly open arid
country with rocky outcrops, plains, wadis and cliffs.[2]
Wikipedia
******
let
1 (let)v. let, let-ting, lets.v. tr. 1. To give permission or
opportunity to; allow: I let them borrow the car. The inheritance let us finally buy a house. See Usage Note at leave1. 2. To cause to; make: Let the news
be known. 3. Used as an auxiliary
in the imperative to express a command, request, or proposal: Let's
finish the job! Let x equal y. Used as an auxiliary in the
imperative to express a warning or threat: Just let her try! 4. To permit to
enter, proceed, or depart: let the dog in. 5. To release from or as if from
confinement: let the air out of the balloon; let out a yelp. 6. To rent or
lease: let rooms. 7. To award, especially after bids have been submitted:
let the construction job to a new firm.v. intr. 1. To become rented or
leased. 2. To be or become assigned, as to a contractor. --phrasal verbs. let
down. 3. To cause to come down gradually; lower: let down the sails. 4. To withdraw support from; forsake. To fail
to meet the expectations of; disappoint. 5.
To withdraw support from; forsake. To fail to meet the expectations of;
disappoint. let on. 6. To allow to be known; admit: Don't let on that you know
me. 7. To pretend. let out. 8. To come to a close; end: School let out early.
The play let out at 11 P.M. 9. To make known; reveal: Who let that story out?
10. To increase the size of (a garment, for example): let out a coat. let up.
11. To slow down; diminish: didn't let up in their efforts. 12. To come to a
stop; cease: The rain let up. --idiom. let alone. Not to mention; much less:
"Their ancestors had been dirt poor and never saw royalty, let alone
hung around with them" (Garrison Keillor). let go. To cease to
employ; dismiss: had to let 20 workers go. let off on. Informal. To cause to
diminish, as in pressure; ease up on: Let off on the gas so that we do not
exceed the speed limit. let (one's) hair down. To drop one's reserve or
inhibitions. let up on. To be or become more lenient with: Why don't you let up
on the poor child?[Middle English leten, from Old English laetan. See le-.]
******
fro-ward
(frowrd,
-rd)adj. Stubbornly contrary and disobedient; obstinate.--fro'ward-ly
adv. --fro'ward-ness n.
******
con-trite
(kn-trit,
kontrit)adj. 1. Feeling regret and sorrow for one's sins or offenses;
penitent. 2. Arising from or expressing contrition: contrite words.[Middle
English contrit, from Latin contritus, past participle of conterere, to crush :
com-, com- + terere, to grind. See ter-1.]--con-trite'ly adv. --con-trite'ness
n.
American
Heritage Dictionary
*******************************
Amorite IV
*
God
created
the heaven
and the
earth.
*
And God
said,
Let
the
earth bring forth grass,
the herb yielding seed,
and the
fruit tree yielding fruit
after
his kind,
**
All
in
whose
nostrils
was
the
breath
of life,
**
I
will
open
rivers
in
high
places,
and
fountains
in
the
midst
of
the
valleys:
I
will
make
the
wilderness
a
pool
of water,
and
the
dry
land springs
of
water.
***
of
all
that
was
in
the
dry
land,
died.
And every
living substance
was destroyed which
was
upon the face
of
the ground,
both
man,
and cattle,
and the
creeping things,
and the
fowl
of
the heaven;
and they were destroyed
from
the earth:
and Noah
only
remained alive,
and they
that were
with
him in
the ark.
And the
waters
prevailed
upon the earth
an hundred
and fifty days.
And God
remembered
Noah,
and every
living thing,
and all
the
cattle
that was
with him
in
the ark:
***
whose seed
isinitself,
upon the earth:
and it
was
so.
*
In
the
selfsame
day
entered Noah,
and Shem,
and Ham,
and Japheth,
the sons
of
Noah,
and Noah's
wife,
___
and the
three wives
Adah
Zillah
and Naamah
of
his sons
Jabal:
he
was the father
of
such as dwell
in
tents,
and of such
as have cattle.
And his brother's
name was
Jubal:
he
was the father
of
all such
as
handle the harp
and organ.
And Zillah,
she also
bare
Tubalcain,
an
instructor
of
every
artificer
in
brass
and iron:
with
them,
into the ark;
They,
and every beast
after
his kind,
and all
the
cattle after their kind,
and every
creeping thing
that creepeth upon
the earth
after his kind,
and every
fowl
after
his kind,
every bird
of
every sort.
And they
went
in
unto Noah into the ark,
two
and two
of
all
flesh,
wherein
is
the breath
of
life.
And
they that
went
in,
***
And the
Lord God
Commanded
the
man,
saying,
Of every tree
of the
garden
thou mayest freely eat:
But
of the tree
of the
knowledge
of
good
and evil,
thou shalt not
eat
of
it:
for in
the
day
that thou
eatest thereof
thou
shalt surely die.
**
And
they that
went
in
went in
male and female
of
all flesh,
as
God
had commanded
him:
and the
Lord
shut him
in.
********
It
is an
old leprosy
in
the skin
of
his flesh,
and the priest
shall
pronounce
him unclean,
and shall
not shut him
up:
for
he
is
unclean.
*****
And the flood was forty days
upon the earth;
and the waters increased,
and bare up the ark,
and
it
was lift
up
above the earth.
*
Unto Shem also,
the father
of
all the
children
of
Eber,
the brother
of
Japheth
the
elder,
**
Cursed be Canaan;
a servant
of servants
shall
he be
unto his brethren.
***
even
to
him
were children born.
*
because
she
was the
mother
of
*
of
Shem;
Elam,
and Asshur,
and Arphaxad,
and Lud,
and Aram.
And
the
children
*
all living
*
of Aram;
Uz,
*
and
God divided
the light
from
the darkness.
*
And Noah
awoke
from
his
wine,
*
There
was
a
man
in
the
land
of
Uz,
whose name was
Job;
*
For
thus saith
the
high
and lofty
One
that
inhabiteth eternity,
whose name
is
Holy;
I
dwell
in
the high
and holy place,
with him also
that
is
of a
contrite
and humble spirit,
to
revive
the
spirit
of
the
humble,
and to revive
the
heart
of the
contrite ones.
*
And
the
Lord said,
My
spirit shall
not
always strive with man,
for
that he
also
is
flesh:
*
For
I
will not contend
for ever,
neither will
I
be
always wroth:
for
the
spirit should fail
before
me,
and the
souls
which
I
have made.
For
the inequity
of
his
covetousness
was
I
wroth,
and smote
him:
**
And the Lord
said
unto Job,
Why art thou wroth?
and why
is
thy
countenance
fallen?
**
And
Moses
was
very wroth,
and said unto
the Lord,
Respect not
thou
their offering:
I
have not taken one ass
from them,
neither have
I
hurt one
of them.
And Moses
said unto
Korah,
Be thou
and all thy company
before
the Lord,
thou,
and they,
and Aaron,
tomorrow:
*****
And he said,
I
heard thy voice
in
the
garden,
and I was afraid,
because
I
was naked;
and
I
hid myself.
***
I
hid me,
and was wroth,
and he went
on
frowardly
in
the way
of
his
heart.
I
have seen his ways,
and will heal him:
I
will lead him also,
and restore comforts
unto
himmanuel
and to
his mourners.
*******
and that man
was
perfect
*
Noah was a just man
and perfect
in
his
generations,
and Noah walked
with
God.
*
The way
of the
just
is
uprightness:
thou,
most upright,
dost weigh
the path
of
the just.
*******
and upright,
and one
that feared God,
*
Noah was a just man
and perfect
in
his
generations,
*
After
this opened
Job
his
mouth,
and cursed
his day
And Job spake,
and said,
*
and said,
I
have gotten a man from the Lord.
*
Let
the
day
perish
wherein
I
was born,
and the
night
in
which it was said,
There
is
*
and she conceived,
*
a
man child
conceived.
Let that day
be
darkness;
let not
God
regard
it
from above,
neither
let the light shine upon
it.
Let darkness
and the
shadow
of
death stain
it;
let a cloud dwell upon
it;
let the blackness
of
the day terrify
it.
As for
that night,
let darkness seize upon
it;
let it not
be
joined unto
the
days of the year,
let it not
come into
the
number of the months.
**
And God
said,
Let
there be lights
**
and God
divided
the light
from
the darkness.
*****
And
God made
two
great
lights;
the
greater light
to
rule
the
day,
and
the lesser
light
to
rule
the night:
he
made
the
stars
also.
And
the evening
and
the
morning
were
the
fourth
day.
*****
in the
firmament
of
the
heaven
to
divide
the day
from
the night;
**
and let
them
be for
signs,
and for seasons,
and for days,
and years:
***
And Adam lived
an hundred
and thirty
years,
*
yet
his days
shall be
an
hundred and twenty years.
**
it;
let
it
not
be
joined unto
the days
of
the year,
let
it
not come
into the number
of
the months.
Lo,
let that night
be
solitary,
let no
joyful voice come therein.
Let them
curse
it
that curse the day,
who are ready
to
raise up
their mourning.
**
And Peleg
lived thirty years,
and begat
Reu:
And Peleg
lived after he begat
Reu
two hundred
and nine years,
and begat sons
and daughters.
And Reu lived
two
and thirty
years,
and begat
Serug:
And Reu
lived after
he
begat Serug
two hundred
and seven
years,
*
And it came to pass,
when men began
to
multiply
on
the face
of
the earth,
and daughters
were born unto
them,
****
And Nahor lived nine
and twenty
years,
and begat
Terah:
And Nahor lived
after he begat
Terah
an hundred
and nineteen
years,
and begat sons
and daughters.
And Terah
lived seventy years,
and begat
Abram,
Nahor,
and Haran.
*******
Now
these are
the
generations
of
Terah:
Terah begat Abram,
Nahor,
and Haran;
and Haran
begat
Lot.
*
And the
Lord Joktan
said unto Satan,
Behold, all that he hath is in thy power;
only upon himself put not forth thine
hand.
So Satan
went
forth from
the
presence
of the
Lord.
****
And Haran
died
before
his father
Terah
in the
land
of
his nativity,
in
Ur
of the
Chaldees.
*********
The ruins of Ur in modern Iraq, the current scholarly consensus for
the city of Ur Kaśdim
Abraham's pool heritage site near Şanlıurfa in modern Turkey, a candidate city for Ur
Kasdim based on the hypotheses of Josephus and Maimonides
Ur Kaśdim
(Hebrew: אוּר
כַּשְׂדִּים ʾur kasdim), commonly translated as Ur of the Chaldeans, is
a city mentioned in the Hebrew Bible as the birthplace of the Israelite and
Ismaelite patriarch Abraham. In 1862, Henry Rawlinson identified Ur
Kaśdim with Tell el-Muqayyar, near Nasiriyah in southern Iraq.[1] In 1927,
Leonard Woolley excavated the site and identified it as a Sumerian
archaeological site where the Chaldeans were to settle around the 9th century
BCE.[2] Recent archaeology work has continued to focus on the location in
Nasiriyah, where the ancient Ziggurat of Ur is located.[3][4][5][6][7][8]
Other sites traditionally thought to be Abraham's birthplace are in the
vicinity of the city of Edessa (Şanlıurfa in modern south eastern Turkey). Traditional
Jewish and Muslim authorities, such as Maimonides and Josephus, placed Ur
Kaśdim at various Upper Mesopotamian or at other southeast Anatolian
sites[citation needed] such as Urkesh, Urartu, Urfa, or Kutha.
**
That the
sons of God
saw the
daughters
of
men
that they
were fair;
and they
took them wives
of
all which they chose.
And the
Lord
said,
My spirit shall not always
strive with man,
for that
he
also is flesh:
*
and begat sons
and daughters.
And Serug
lived thirty years,
and begat Nahor:
And Serug lived
after
he
begat Nahor
two hundred years,
******
Therefore shall
a
man
leave his father
and his mother,
and shall
cleave unto his wife:
and they shall
be
one flesh.
*
and begat
sons
and daughters.
*****
And Abram
and Nahor
took
them wives:
the name
of
Abram's wife
was Sarai;
*
and the
name
of
Nahor's wife,
Milcah,
the daughter
of
Haran,
the
father of Milcah,
and the
father
of
Iscah.
But Sarai
was barren;
she
had no child.
And Terah
took Abram
his son,
**
and
Lot
the son
of
Haran
**
and shalt call
his
name
Ishmael;
***
his
son's
son,
**
and shalt call
his
name
Ishmael;
because
the Lord hath
heard
thy
affliction.
ISamuelYeaO
